PART ONE -INTRODUCTION
Bedrich
Moldan
Nations and their governments are the key actors in the pattern of governance of contemporary society. Their decisions play an active role in shaping the lives of people, as well as the global environment. The mechanisms of government decision-making, including the information supporting these processes, are well developed. It is not surprising, therefore, that indicators of sustainable development at the national level are advanced and widely used.
Chapter 4 presents a sampling of indicators and their systems as they are applied in different countries. This chapter presents a number of practical applications of indicators of sustainable development (ISD) that complement the theoretical approaches described in the previous chapters. Each country box describes a specific situation from various perspectives. The system adopted within each country reflects the unique conditions and needs of that particular country.
It should be clear that as yet there is no standardized or internationally accepted set of ISDs. Therefore, the development and application of indicators in each country represents a specific methodological contribution to the development of indicators in general.
The first sets of indicators were published in the early nineties, even before UNCED in Rio de Janeiro. In fact, work on indicators had already commenced in the late eighties in OECD (see Box 3A) and in a few countries. One of these countries is Canada (Box 4A). Here, the national programme on indicators started in 1989 and focused on environmental indicators. From the beginning it was guided by three essential aspects of environmentally sustainable development:
As indicators further develop, new aspects are being taken into account. A preliminary set of urban sustainability indicators, for example, was developed in the wake of a national workshop on urban sustainability in June, 1995. Scenario modelling also brings new elements under consideration as an important method of testing indicators. Indicators are regularly used in Canadian State of the Environment and other reports.
The Netherlands has been focusing on environmental indicators for many years. These were introduced as a policy tool several years ago (Box 4B). The indicators are central to the National Environmental Policy Plan and they are now the key element. The most important lessons learned over several years of use (since 1991 ) are:
UNCED in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 was the inspiration for all kinds of activities leading to the transformation process towards sustainability. The development of indicators was an important component of this global effort. The development of indicators was mandated by Chapter 40 of Agenda 21 and has been reinforced by various actions taken by the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (See introductory part of this book). Significant work began in several countries and produced remarkably successful results.
Probably the most extensive set of sustainable development indicators to date was published in the United Kingdom (Box 4C). In March 1996, a comprehensive publication with about 120 indicators, covering the period 1974-1994, was published. A good balance among different dimensions of sustainable development was achieved. The indicators are explained and integrated in a broad context. Indicator values provide an important and unique message about the development of the country during the past decades and many important lessons can be learned. The box gives several examples of important indicators.
Among developing countries, the small Central American country of Costa Rica is well-known for its effective and innovative environmental policies. Work on sustainability indicators is advanced. The Costa Rican government was one of the organizers and hosts, together with the Belgian government, of the breakthrough Ghent SCOPE-UNEP meeting in 1995. Costa Rica's national preferences are fully reflected in the selected indicators system. In accordance with the country's democratic and environmental traditions, Costa Rica recognizes the importance of sustainable human development in harmony with nature. An overview of the situation in this country is presented in Box 4D. Among several reported achievements, probably the most important is the introduction of the concept of Sustainable Human Development (SHD) and the measurement and reports of its progress. SHD performance is regularly assessed in annual reports.
The attention given to indicators in the world's most populous country, China, is quite impressive. The Chinese approach to indicators of sustainable development is outlined in Box 4E. The text in the box is presented by an official of the Chinese National Environmental Protection Agency. The table of indicators introduces an impressive set of targets as part of Chinese development policy for the year 2000. The Chinese set of indicators is selected in order to capture the most essential and important elements of sustainable development, stressing the priorities of China's national policy.
Brazil is one of the biggest countries in the world. It was once heavily criticized for its environmental policy, specifically regarding ineffective protection of the unique Amazon region. However, there are clear signs that the situation has changed. The Rio Earth Summit had an enormous influence on the host country. Brazilian efforts to develop and use indicators are presented in Box 4F. The MONITORE programme deals with a large number of sustainability indicators, inspired mostly by the CSO core list.
The last contribution from the developing world provides comprehensive information on the situation in the Philippines (Box 4G). The idea of sustainable development was adopted by the Government of the Philippines as early as 1989, which is truly remarkable in the global context. Correspondingly, the development of ISOs had already begun several years ago. They are an established policy tool at various levels. The contribution from the Philippines shows a system of indicators that is far more developed than what the majority of developed countries have to offer. The comprehensive description of the many initiatives in this country, including several indicator systems, is impressive. For example, the application of six tests of sustainability at the project level seems to be a unique policy tool.
Our survey of nationally adopted systems of indicators starts with two very advanced developed countries, Canada and The Netherlands. In comparison, one of the most advanced industrial countries, the United States, is at a relatively early stage in development of a nation-wide set of indicators. Several federal departments and other entities, however, are now developing indicators of sustainable development under the auspices of the Presidential Council on Sustainable Development. The US approach is innovative and thorough, introducing several new elements that are original, namely the concept of endowments, current outputs and results, and the corresponding indicators (Box 4H). Similarly, the system of indicators that is being developed in France is innovative (Box 4I). The proposed framework is a rather comprehensive one, attempting to capture all the essential elements of sustainable development and the linkages between them.
The next contribution comes from a Central European country, Austria. A group of researchers from the universities of Innsbruck, Klagenfurt and Vienna is using a number of new methodological approaches (Box 4J). They present the results of several research projects that reveal important facts about the state of development in Austria. This contribution displays some of the approaches presented in Chapter 3 of this book (see specifically Boxes 3C and 3O), as well as introducing some new ones. The indicators presented describe, with considerable depth and orginality, the country's 'metabolism' from various aspects and send an important message about the nature of contemporary (unsustainable) patterns of industrial metabolism.
The last contribution presents an example of a regional approach with the current indicators programme of the European Union (Box 4K). The development of the methodology for describing the environmental component of sustainable development by means of Environmental Pressure Indices is outlined in this contribution.
The many approaches taken by different countries to ISDs reflect the richness in the idea of sustainability. At the same time, they sketch an inspiring picture of the many ways to operationalize the concept of sustainable development.